Irving Wladawsky-Berger

Blockchain Beyond the Hype

A recent issue of The Economist included a special report on cryptocurrencies and blockchains.  The Economist’s overall conclusion was that “Bitcoin has been a failure as a means of payment, but thrilling for speculators.”  Its assessment of blockchain was somewhat more positive.  “For blockchains, the jury is still out,… For all the technology’s potential, though, most attempts to use it remain tentative,…  The advantages of blockchains are often oversold.” 

In 2016, blockchain made the list of the World Economic Forum’s Top Ten Emerging Technologies.  That same year, blockchain also made its first appearance in Gartner’s yearly hype cycles.  Even The Economist has been guilty of overselling when it featured blockchain in the cover of its October 31, 2015 issue with the tag line “The Trust Machine: How the technology behind Bitcoin could change the world.” 

Is there too much hype surrounding blockchain?  Absolutely,… but not surprising.  All potentially transformative technologies are oversold in their early stages.  Remember the dot-com bubble of the late 1990s.  Blockchain is still in its early phases of experimentation and adoption.  Much work remains to be done on standards, platforms, interoperability, applications and governance. 

But, does blockchain have the potential to become a truly transformative technology over time?  Yes, said McKinsey in a recent article on the strategic value of blockchain beyond the hype.  The article starts out by acknowledging that all the hype around blockchain makes it difficult to nail down not just blockchain's long term strategic value, but also what it actually is and what it isn’t in the present. To make sure everyone is on the same page, the article first recaps what it calls “the nuts and bolts of blockchain.”  Let me start by summarizing blockchain’s nuts and bolts.

Blockchain’s Potential for Environmental Applications

In mid-September, the World Economic Forum (WEF) released Building Block(chain)s for a Better Planet, a report that examined how blockchain technologies could be harnessed to address serious environmental issues, better manage our shared global environment and help drive sustainable growth and value creation.  The report outlines some of the world’s most-pressing environmental challenges and highlights eight blockchain-based game changers that could lead to transformative solutions to these pressing problems.

The WEF report includes a short blockchain tutorial.  Blockchain is essentially “a new, decentralized and global computational infrastructure that could transform many existing processes in business, governance and society.”  Blockchain technologies promise to significantly improve the efficiency and security of business transactions and data sharing among participants in a global ecosystem, such as supply chains, financial services, and similar complex applications involving multiple institutions.

But, the hype surrounding blockchain, can tempt solution designers to try to use it for applications that it’s not suitable for.  The report recommends that designers first consider three key questions:

• Will blockchain solve your actual problem; is a distributed architecture vital to your solution?
• Have you built the right ecosystem of stakeholders; do they understand and trust how blockchain is being used?
• Can you acceptably manage the downside risks or unintended consequences, e.g., scalability, performance, implementation risks?

Cryptocurrencies and Blockchains - How Are They Doing After 10 Years?

Bitcoin was created about a decade ago, with the release of the original design paper, Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System, under the pen name of Satoshi Nakamoto.  Bitcoin aimed to become a decentralized cryptocurrency and digital payment system that would enable the secure exchange of digital money without the need for central government authorities or financial intermediaries.  It introduced the blockchain, - which most everyone agrees is a truly brilliant architecture built on decades-old fundamental research in cryptography, distributed data, distributed computing, game theory and other advanced technologies.

How are they doing after 10 years?  The September 1 issue of The Economist includes a special report on cryptocurrencies and blockchains, with nine articles on the subject. The report’s overview article doesn’t mince words in articulating its overall assessment: “Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies are useless.  For blockchains, the jury is still out.”

“Bitcoin has been a failure as a means of payment, but thrilling for speculators,” it further added.  Its price has been subject to wild fluctuations over the past two years.  It rose from around $600 in September, 2016, to $6,000 in September, 2017, reaching a peak of over $19,000 in December, 2017, before falling to around $7,000 earlier this year.  It’s been hovering between $6,500 and $7,500 for the past few months.  Other cryptocurrencies have experienced similar price fluctuations.  “That has made a few people very rich (just 100 accounts own 19% of all existing bitcoin), encouraged others to play for quick gains and left some nursing substantial losses.”

The Identity Challenge: On the Internet, Nobody Knows You're a Dog

I recently read Better Identity in America, a report by the Better Identity Coalition, an organization launched earlier this year to focus on promoting the development and adoption of solutions for identity verification and authentication.  The report outlines a policy agenda for improving the privacy and security of digital systems and help combat identity fraud.

How bad is the problem?  Data breaches, large-scale fraud, and identity theft are becoming more common.  In 2017, there were 16.7 million victims of identity fraud in the US, causing a loss of $16.8 billion; there was a 44.7% increase in US data breaches between 2016 and 2017 and a 30% rise in online shopping fraud; 179 million personal information records were exposed to data breaches, 69% of which were identity theft incidents.

The report notes that “the ability to offer high-value transactions and services online is being tested more than ever, due in large part to the challenges of proving identity online. The lack of an easy, secure, reliable way for entities to verify identities or attributes of people they are dealing with online creates friction in commerce, leads to increased fraud and theft, degrades privacy, and hinders the availability of many services online.”

As the report reminds us, the extent of this challenge was famously captured back in 1993 by Peter Steiner’s New Yorker cartoon with the caption On the Internet, nobody knows you’re a dog.  25 year later, the cartoon still perfectly describes the identity challenge.  If anything, the challenge is even more serious in 2018, given that the volume and variety of online transaction services are greater than ever before.

The Emergence of a Blockchain-Based Token Economy

Blockchain Revolution, published in May of 2016 by Don Tapscott and Alex Tapscott, was one of the first books that explained the promise of blockchain technologies to the general public.  Its central argument is that for nearly four decades, the Internet has been great for reducing the costs of searching, collaborating, and exchanging information.  But, it has serious limitations for business and economic activity.  “Doing business on the Internet requires a leap of faith,” the book noted.  The Internet was designed to move information, but it’s lacked the necessary trust, security and privacy safeguards to move assets of value.  With blockchain, we’re now seeing the emergence of such an Internet of value.  “Now for the first time ever we have a native digital medium for value, through which we can manage, store, and transfer any asset.”

An updated edition of Blockchain Revolution was published this past June.  A lot has happened with blockchain in the intervening two years.  The updated edition explains some of these recent developments in a new preface, including cryptoassets, permissioned networks, identity and supply chains.  I’ll focus my comments on the emergence of a blockchain-based token economy, driven by the explosive growth in the value and variety of cryptoassets.

When the original book was published, the entire cryptoasset market had a value of $9 billion, - mostly dominated by the value of Bitcoin at $7 billions, while Ether, the Ethereum cryptocurreny, had reached around $1 billion.  The new edition estimates that as of March, 2018, the cryptoasset market was around $400 billion in size, a value subject to rapid fluctuations.  In addition, a wide variety of cryptoassets have been developed over the past two years. 

The Promise and Current State of Blockchain

I recently participated in a blockchain panel at a conference of senior supply chain executives from a variety of companies.  I welcomed the opportunity to learn how these real-world executives feel about blockchain, as well as how to best communicate the promise and current state of this emerging and potentially transformative technology.  Let me share a few of my observations.

Before our panel started, the executives were asked how they viewed blockchain.  In general, they felt that there was too much hype surrounding blockchain, were skeptical about its value to supply chain systems, but expressed a wait-and-see attitude.  They were then asked how many were conducting blockchain prototypes in their companies.  The majority raised their hands. 

I thought that their views and subsequent questions and comments during the panel succinctly captures the current state of blockchain in the business world: skeptical, turned off by the hype, but hedging their bets by getting on the learning curve with prototypes and experimentation.

The moderator first asked each panelist to address the audience’s skepticism about blockchain.  What, in our opinion, is the key value of blockchain?  I said that I look at the value of blockchain through two complementary lenses: enhancing the security of the Internet, and reducing the inefficiencies and overheads in applications, like supply chains, involving multiple institutions.

A Framework for the Safe Management of Digital Identities and Data

Identity plays a major role in everyday life.  Think about going to an office, getting on a plane, logging to a website or making an online purchase.  Identity is the key that determines the particular transactions in which we can rightfully participate as well as the information we’re entitled to access.   But, we generally don’t pay much attention to the management of our identity credentials unless something goes seriously wrong.

For much of history, our identity systems have been based on face-to-face interactions and on physical documents and processes.  But, the transition to a digital economy requires radically different identity systems.  In a world that’s increasingly governed by digital transactions and data, our existing methods for managing security and privacy are proving inadequate.  Data breaches, large-scale fraud, and identity theft are becoming more common.  In addition, a significant portion of the world’s population lacks the credentials needed to participate in the digital economy.  Our existing methods for managing digital identities are far from adequate.

As explained in A Blueprint for Digital Identity, - a 2016 report by the World Economic Forum, - identity is essentially a collection of information or attributes associated with a specific individual.  These attributes fall into three main categories:  inherent - attributes intrinsic to an individual, - e.g., age, height, date of birth, fingerprints, color of eyes, retinal scans;  assigned - attributes attached to but not intrinsic to the individual - e.g., e-mail address, telephone numbers, social security, drivers license, passport number; and accumulated - attributes gathered or developed over time - e.g., health records, job history, home addresses, schools attended.

While mostly associated with individuals, identities can also be assigned to legal entities like corporations, partnerships and trusts; to physical entities like cars, buildings, smartphones and IoT devices; and to digital entities like patents, software programs and data sets.

Data attributes are generally siloed within different private and public sector institutions, each using its data for its own purposes.  But to reach a higher level of privacy and security, we need to establish trusted data ecosystems, which requires the exchange and sharing of data across a variety of institutions.  The more data sources a trusted ecosystem has access to, the higher the probability of detecting fraud and identity theft while reducing false positives.  In addition, an ecosystem with a variety of data sources can help foster economic inclusiveness by certifying the identities and credit worthiness of poor people with no banking affiliation.

However, safeguarding the data used to validate identities creates security and privacy issues of its own.  It’s unsafe to gather all the needed attributes within one institution or central data location, making it a target for data breaches.  But, it’s also highly unfeasible, as few institutions will let their critical data out of their premises.

Blockchain and Business Process Transformation

One can look at the transformational impact of IT on companies and industries through a variety of lenses, - e.g., products and services, revenue and profit, sales and support, market strategy.  One of the most important such lenses is the impact of IT on business processes, that is, on how work is actually done across the various functions of an organization. 

Examining the impact of IT over the past several decades through a process point of view, one can identify three distinct phases: first came process automation in the early years of IT, followed around the 1990s by enterprise-wide process reengineering and management.  The third phase, is now starting, focused on the processes and transactions that determine how institutions interact with each other around the world.  Let me discuss each of these phases. 

Blockchain Killer-Apps

A killer app is an IT application whose value is simple to explain, its use is fairly intuitive, and the application turns out to be so useful that it helps propel the success of a product or service.  Spreadsheets and word processing were major factors in the 1980s adoption of personal computers, for example.  A decade later, e-mail, and the World Wide Web played crucial roles in the mainstream success of the Internet.  While there are a number of strong candidates for smartphone killer-apps, navigation and music are among the most widely used.

Blockchain has been in the news lately, but beyond knowing that it has something to do with payments and digital currencies, most people don’t know what blockchain is or why they should care.  A major part of the reason is that we still don’t have the kind of easy-to-explain blockchain killer-apps that propelled the Internet forward.

Blockchain has yet to cross the chasm from technology enthusiasts and visionaries to the wider marketplace that’s more interested in business value and applications.  There’s considerable research on blockchain technologies, platforms and applications as well as market experimentation in a number of industries - roughly where the Internet was in the mid-late 1980s: full of promise but still confined to a niche audience.

In addition, outside of digital currencies, -a somewhat exotic topic of interest to a relatively small audience, - blockchain applications are primarily aimed at institutions.  And, given that blockchain is all about the creation, exchange and management of valuable assets, its applications are significantly more complex to understand and explain than Internet applications.

The management of information is quite different from the management of transactions.  The latter, especially for transactions dealing with valuable or sensitive assets, requires deep contractual negotiations among companies and jurisdictional negotiations among governments.  Moreover, since blockchain is inherently multi-institutional in nature, its applications involve close collaboration among companies, governments and other entities.

Blockchain and the Promise of an Open, Decentralized Internet

The January 21 issue of the NY Times Magazine included a very good article, Beyond the Bitcoin Bubble, by science writer Steven Johnson.  His article aims to explain what blockchain, cryptocurrencies and related technologies are all about as well as their potential impact on the economy and society.  These are not only complex but esoteric subjects, as nicely illustrated in this funny video.  While blockchain and Bitcoin have been frequently in the news lately, beyond knowing that they have something to do with money, most people don’t really know what they are or why they should care.

This is not surprising.  In their early years, it’s hard for most people to appreciate the potential of a transformative technology.  There’s generally a considerable time-lag between the time we start reading articles about their exciting potential and their adoption by companies and industries across the marketplace.  This is particularly the case for general purpose technologies, like electricity, the Internet and blockchain, which are the most potentially transformative due to their widespread use.   Their deployment time-lags are longer because attaining their full benefits requires a number of complementary co-inventions and investments, including additional technologies, applications, processes, business models, and regulatory policies.

Blockchain and the Music Industry: Turning Pennies into Dollars

Just about every industry has been significantly transformed in the past few decades.  But few have been as disrupted as the music industry.  Everything seems to be changing at once, from the way content is produced and delivered, to the sources of revenue and profits.  Digital technologies, - the Internet, smartphones, cloud computing, … - have literally turned dollars into pennies.  Now, blockchain and related technologies may once more play a major role in the music industry, - this time helping to turn those pennies back into dollars.

We’re truly surrounded by music as never before, - in a wide variety of styles; in physical and digital formats; over the Internet, satellite, and broadcasts; in mobile devices and home music systems.  But, the shift from physical to digital, and then from downloads to streaming have wreaked havoc on the business of music.  US retail revenues of recorded music were close to $14 billion in 1998 before starting their decline.  According to the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), revenues fell from roughly $12 billion in 2006 to around $7 billion in 2010.  They stayed flat at $7 billion though 2015, starting to increase in 2016 mostly due to a growth in paid streaming music subscriptions.  Revenues are expected to be around $8 billion in 2017.

Turning dollars into pennies succinctly captures the music industry’s precipitous revenue declines.  As this article noted, “During the heyday of the 80s, the music industry was rolling in so much money it could afford to leave some on the table… which it often did…  There were so many dollars coming in, they didn’t bother paying attention to the pennies.  Well, as we all know those days are gone.  And after a decade of losses from its traditional revenue stream (sales), we’ve seen the music industry forced to look for revenue in new places and in different ways.  In the absence of dollars, the pennies now matter.”

As a result, the music industry now finds itself trying to figure out how to keep track of all those pennies in the hope of turning them back into dollars.  In the first half of 2017, streaming services accounted for 62% of the total market, with digital downloads and physical sales accounting for 19% and 16% respectively, said the RIAA.  But streaming pays royalties in fractions of pennies, so legislation, new business models and technological innovations are needed to make sure that all the necessary data are efficiently collected so the various artists involved in a song are paid.

The Evolution Toward Digital Supply Chains

Two years ago, a group of leading CEOs from around the world met in China to discuss the major issues facing their companies in the global marketplace.  The meeting was organized by the Center for Global Enterprise (CGE), - the nonprofit research institution founded by former IBM Chairman and CEO Sam Palmisano to study the contemporary corporation, globalization, economic trends, and their impact on society.  The CEOs at the meeting in China concluded that their highest research priority was the evolution toward Digital Supply Chains (DSC), and its potential to transform organizations and the conduct of business around the world.  In response, the Digital Supply Chain Institute (DSCI) was launched a few months later.

In October of 2016, the DSCI, in partnership with CREATe.org  published its first research paper, Digital Supply Chains: A Frontside Flip.  The paper explains the key differences between traditional and digital supply chains, and provides practical advice to help companies prepare for the digital supply chains of the future

The traditional supply chain has evolved over the years as a crucial process used by many companies for the production, handling, and/or distribution of their products or services.  Traditional supply chains generally comprise five separate back-office functions: transport, warehousing, purchasing, marketing and finance.  Their key objective has been to improve the efficiency of getting goods and services from suppliers to customers, through a series of intermediate steps including manufacturing, distributors and retailers.  But, these supply chains were quite fragmented, with limited interactions and information sharing among their various functions and steps.

Over the past couple of decades, the explosive growth of the Internet has made it much easier for companies to transact with each other around the world.  The connectivity and universal reach of the Internet has enabled companies to integrate and better coordinate all their various processes, as well as to go beyond the boundaries of the firm and develop highly sophisticated global supply chains.  Vertically integrated firms have evolved into virtual enterprises, increasingly relying on supply chain partners for many of the manufacturing and services functions once done in-house.

The DSCI paper argues that it’s time to focus on the transformation of the whole supply chain process, not just in further increases in efficiency.  Their traditional linear nature is increasingly misaligned with the more networked nature of today’s global production.

Blockchain and the Future of the Firm

Last week I wrote about Machine, Platform, Crowd: Harnessing Our Digital Future, a recently published book by MIT’s Andy McAfee and Erik Brynjolfsson.  The book is organized into three main sections: Mind and Machine, Product and Platform, and Core and Crowd, each based on  a business trend that’s significantly reshaping the business world.  I based my discussion on the Mind and Machine section, which I found to be an excellent explanation of recent advances in artificial intelligence.

I now want to focus my attention on the provocative questions raised in the book’s latter chapters.  “In this era of powerful new technologies, do we still need companies?”  How are firms likely to evolve given the continuing advances of Internet-based technologies, as well as emerging blockchain-based technologies such as distributed ledgers and smart contracts?  “Are companies passé” in an increasingly decentralized economy?

Following the Great Depression and WW2, the country welcomed the stability promised by corporate capitalism.  Big, multinational companies dominated most industries, - GM, Ford and Chrysler in cars, Citibank, American Express and Morgan Stanley in finance, and Esso/Exxon, Mobil and Texaco in oil and gas.  It was an era characterized by bureaucratic corporate cultures, - not unlike military hierarchies - focused on organizational power and orderly prosperity.

This all started to change a few decades later with the advent of a more innovative, fast moving entrepreneurial economy.  The 1980s saw the rise of young, high-tech companies, - e.g., Microsoft, Apple, Oracle, Sun Microsystems, - and Silicon Valley became the global hub for innovation, emulated by regions around the world.  Turtlenecks and jeans replaced blue suits, white shirts, and ties.

The advent of the Internet and e-commerce pushed all these trends into hyperdrive in the 1990s.  The Internet made it much easier for companies to transact with each other around the world.  Vertically integrated firms evolved into virtual enterprises, increasingly relying on supply chain partners for many of the functions once done in-house.  Management experts noted that large firms were no longer necessary and would in fact be at a disadvantage in the Internet era when competing against agile, innovative smaller companies.

Platforms, Blockchains, and the Evolution of Trust

“In primitive economies, people traded mostly with members of their village and community,” wrote David Brooks in a June, 2014 NY Times OpEd, - The Evolution of Trust.  “Trust was face to face.  Then, in the mass economy we’ve been used to, people bought from large and stable corporate brands, whose behavior was made more reliable by government regulation.  But now there is a new trust calculus, powered by both social and economic forces.”

Brooks’ article focused on the rise of the on-demand economy, - aka, the collaborative, sharing, peer-to-peer economy, - and in particular on the surprising success of Airbnb.  Rooms for rent in boarding houses and child and pet care services are nothing new.  What’s new is the impact of technology, platforms and blockchain in particular, on the growing on-demand economy.  Companies are being disrupted as consumers are now able to deal with each other bypassing traditional hotels and taxi services.  All kinds of on-demand products and services are now coming to market.

The on-demand economy wouldn’t be possible without the mobile devices and platforms that enable peer-to-peer transactions among individuals any time and place; the digital payment systems that reliably and securely broker the transactions between buyers and sellers; and the social reputation systems, where people rank buyers and sellers, - a critical requirement for the smooth functioning of collaborative markets like Airbnb.  In the digital economy, our online reputations follow us everywhere, whether we are the renters or the ones renting, the service providers or the service consumers.

Should Your Company Get on the Blockchain Learning Curve Now or Wait?

A few weeks ago I wrote about the current state of blockchain.  In particular, I asked whether blockchain is ready to cross the chasm from its early adopters, - who are already involved with blockchain in one way or another, - to the considerably larger set of mainstream users who may be considering blockchain but are waiting for results and assurances before jumping in.

I explored this question by comparing blockchain today to the Internet in the early-mid 1990s, which is roughly when the Internet made its own transition from early adopters to mainstream users.  My conclusion was that blockchain isn’t quite ready for this important transition.  It’s still in its early adopters stage, - perhaps akin to the Internet in the late1980s.  A lot is going on with blockchain, so much so that last year the World Economic Forum (WEF) named The Blockchain one of its Top Ten Emerging Technologies for 2016.  But much remains to be done in key areas, including standards, applications and governance.  Blockchain has the potential to make our digital infrastructures much more secure, efficient and trustworthy, but it will take time.

The Internet in the early-mid 1990s was clearly more advanced than blockchain is today.  On the other hand, the business environment in 2017 is quite different from the one back then.  The Internet and associated technologies like smartphones and cloud computing have significantly lowered the costs of collaboration and experimentation, enabling innovations to emerge more rapidly.  In addition to providing a good set of lessons for blockchain’s adoption, the Internet is smoothing the way for the development of blockchain platforms, applications and ecosystems.

What should  your company do?  Get on the blockchain learning curve now or wait until the technology is more mature before jumping in?  Become an early adopter of this potentially transformative technology, or run the risk of being left behind by more aggressive competitors?  How should your company decide when and how to best embrace a disruptive new technology like blockchain?

Is Blockchain Ready to “Cross the Chasm”? Lessons from the Internet

Earlier this year, IBM conducted the largest study to date on the state of adoption of blockchain.  The study interviewed almost 3,000 C-Suite executives from over 80 countries and 20 industries to learn about their company’s blockchain plans.  Survey responses where classified into three groups: explorers, investigators and passives.

Explorers are already involved in blockchain pilots and experiments.  They make up an average of 8 percent across all industries, with higher activity in certain industries like financial services.  25 percent of organizations are investigators, - considering but not yet ready to deploy blockchains, and 67 percent are passives, - not considering blockchains so far.

These survey results are not surprising for a technology as new and complex as blockchain.  With such technologies, you typically have a relatively small number of early adopters.  A larger number of followers are waiting to learn from the early adopters’ experiences, while the laggards are not yet sure what the technology is about or if it applies to them.

On the Governance of Blockchain: Lessons from the Internet

A few weeks ago, the World Economic Forum (WEF) released Realizing the Potential of Blockchain, a report by Don Tapscott and Alex Tapscott, authors of Blockchain Revolution which was published in May, 2016, and founders of the recently launched Blockchain Research Institute.  “The last few decades brought us the internet of information.  We are now witnessing the rise of the internet of value,” wrote the authors in the report’s Executive Summary.  “Like the first generation of the internet, this second generation promises to disrupt business models and transform industries… pulling us into a new era of openness, decentralization and global inclusion.”

“However, this extraordinary technology may be stalled, sidetracked, captured or otherwise suboptimized depending on how all the stakeholders behave in stewarding this set of resources - i.e. how it is governed,” they add in a strong note of caution.  “How we govern the internet of information as a global resource serves as a model for how to govern this new resource: through a multi-stakeholder approach using what we call global governance networks.”

I totally agree.

The Internet and World Wide Web brought a badly needed culture of collaboration and standards to the IT industry.  In the 1980s, it was quite difficult to get different IT systems to talk to each other.  Just sending an e-mail across two different applications from two different vendors was quite a chore, as was sharing information across disparate systems.  Then in the 1990s, the open Internet protocol, - TCP/IP, - was widely embraced by the general IT marketplace, making it possible to interconnect systems and applications from any vendors.  Internet e-mail protocols, - SMTP, MIME, POP, IMAP, - enabled people to easily communicate with anyone on any system.  At the same time,  the Web’s open standards, - HTML, HTTP, URLs enabled any PC connected to the Internet to access information on any web server anywhere in the world.

A similar story played out with Unix.  In the 1980s, Unix became a popular operating system for technical workstations, supercomputers and other kinds of systems.  Every vendor had developed its own version of Unix, - IBM’s AIX, Sun’s Solaris, HP’s HP-UX, and several others, - and they were all somewhat different and incompatible, making it difficult to port applications across these different flavors of Unix.  Attempts to unify UNIX were not successful.  Finally, in the 1990s Linux emerged as a Unix-like operating system that over time was embraced by just about all vendors.

Is Blockchain the Major Next Step in the Evolution of the Internet?

In the Fall of 1995, IBM made the decision to embrace the Internet and make it the centerpiece of its strategic directions.  As the general manager of the newly formed IBM Internet Division, I spent a lot of time thinking how to best articulate the promise of the Internet.  Looking back, I often described that promise using some variation of: The Internet has the potential to transform the economy, society and our personal lives.

It’s taken a a few additional innovations, - e.g., smartphones, social media, cloud computing, big data, IoT, - for its historical impact to be fully evident, but by now, most everyone agrees that the Internet has become one of the most transformative technologies the world has ever seen, - right up there with electricity, telecommunications, cars and airplanes.

About a year ago, the World Economic Forum (WEF) published its annual list of the Top Ten Emerging Technologies for 2016, and named The Blockchain as one of the technologies in the 2016 list.  The WEF report compared the blockchain to the Internet, noting that “Like the Internet, the blockchain is an open, global infrastructure upon which other technologies and applications can be built.  And like the Internet, it allows people to bypass traditional intermediaries in their dealings with each other, thereby lowering or even eliminating transaction costs.”

As Don Tapscott and Alex Tapscott wrote in the opening paragraph of their recently published book  Blockchain Revolution, “It appears that once again, the technological genie has been unleashed from its bottle.  Summoned by an unknown person or persons with unclear motives, at an uncertain time in history, the genie is now at our service for another kick of the can - to transform the economic power grid and the old order of human affairs for the better.  If we will it.”

The Emerging Data Economy

The Economist’s May 6 issue referred to data in its cover as the world’s most valuable resource.  Its lead article, - Data is giving rise to a new economy, - called it the fuel of the future.  “Data are to this century what oil was to the last one: a driver of growth and change.”  Both oil refineries and data centers fulfill similar roles: “producing crucial feedstocks for the world economy.”  Much of modern life would not exist without the cars, plastics and drugs made possible by oil refineries.  Similarly, data centers “power all kinds of online services and, increasingly, the real world as devices become more and more connected.”

Data has been closely intertwined with our digital technology revolution since the early days of the IT industry.  Data processing was the term then used to describe the applications of IT to automate highly structured business processes, e.g., financial transactions, inventory management, airline reservations.  Over time, increasingly sophisticated applications were developed to better manage key business operations along with their associated data, including enterprise resource planning, customer relationship management and human resources.  Beyond their use in operations, the information generated by these various applications was collected in data warehouses, and a variety of business intelligence tools were used to analyze the data and generate management reports.

These commercial applications dealt mostly with structured information in those early years of computing.  But at the same time, the scientific community was developing tools for managing, analyzing and visualizing the high volumes of much more unstructured data generated by their  experiments and observations.  Physicists, astronomers, biologists, and other scientists and engineers were developing methodologies and architectures for dealing with very large volumes of unstructured data, as well as analytical techniques, like data mining, for discovering patterns and extracting insights from all that data.

Then came the explosive growth of the Internet in the mid-1990s.  Ever since, digital technologies have been permeating just about every nook and cranny of the economy, society and our personal lives.  Data is now being generated by just about everything and everybody around us, including the growing volume of online and offline transactions, web searches, social media interactions, billions of smart mobile devices and 10s of billions of smart IoT sensors.

What’s the Value of Blockchain?

A few weeks ago I attended the IBM Blockchain Summit 2017 in New York.  The Summit included a number of talks and panels, and - most important, - presentations of concrete blockchain use cases IBM has been working on in a number of areas, including finance, supply chains and healthcare.  Such real-world use cases are particularly important when introducing a new, complex set of technologies in the marketplace.  They’re the best way of getting on the learning curve for the new technologies as well as of explaining the kinds of problems they help us address.

Blockchain has the potential to transform our economic and social systems, but such a transformation is still many years away.  Like the Internet, blockchain is a foundational technology, whose adoption process is gradual, incremental and steady, unlike the hockey stick adoption we typically associate with disruptive technologies as defined by Clayton Christensen 20 years ago.  Foundational transformations must overcome many barriers, - technological, organizational, governance, political, - which is why they take a long time to play out.

Lest we forget,  TCP/IP, - the communications protocol that defines the Internet to this day, - was first adopted in the mid-1980s.  So were the protocols used in e-mail, - the first widely used Internet application which enabled its user base in government, universities and research institutions to easily communicate with each other.  It wasn’t until the late 1980s that the Internet was first opened up to public, commercial users.  General Internet adoption took off a few years later with the advent of the World Wide Web and the Web browser, and its transformational power wasn’t fully evident until the late 2000s, with the explosive growth of smartphones and the mobile Internet.

The concrete uses cases presented by IBM as it defines its blockchain strategy brought to mind the approach we took in the early days of formulating IBM’s Internet strategy, which I was closely involved with.

The Growing Importance of Storytelling in the Business World

Communications have played a major role in my work over the past few decades.  During this period, I was involved in organizing emerging business opportunities at IBM, including the Internet and Linux.  Since retiring from IBM in 2007, I’ve continued my involvement with technology-based initiatives, - AI and blockchain most recently, - through my consulting and academic activities as well as the weekly blogs that I’ve now been writing for the past dozen years.

Over the years I’ve learned that when trying to explain a complex new concept or product, it’s important to engage in a kind-of conversation with your intended audience, where you talk about what's in your mind, your questions, your doubts, what you know and what you don't know.  In short, you’re telling a story about the concept, product or brand you’re trying to explain.

While storytelling is mostly associated with entertainment, education and culture, it also plays a major role in business.  Storytelling is widely used in the development of brands for products as well as companies.  And, the more powerful, important and complex the brand messages you are trying to convey, the more important it is that you do so by telling a compelling but simple, - i.e., understandable, - story.

Good storytelling is particularly important when introducing a complex and potentially disruptive offering in the marketplace whose value is not well understood.  It’s a natural way of explaining what the new innovation is all about.  As a concrete example, let me share my experiences with the development of IBM’s Internet and e-business strategy in the mid-late 1990s.

The Internet, Blockchain, and the Evolution of Foundational Innovations

Last year, a panel of global experts convened by the World Economic Forum selected blockchain as one of the Top Ten Emerging Technologies for 2016, based on its potential to fundamentally change the way economies work.  But, how transformative will blockchain turn out to be?  How long is the transformation likely to take?  And how will it compare with the Internet-based transformation of the past few decades?

These questions were nicely addressed in The Truth about Blockchain, a recent Harvard Business Review article by Harvard professors Marco Iansiti and Karim Lakhani.  Their article starts off with one of the best descriptions I’ve seen of the long-term promise of blockchain.

“Contracts, transactions, and the records of them are among the defining structures in our economic, legal, and political systems.  They protect assets and set organizational boundaries.  They establish and verify identities and chronicle events.  They govern interactions among nations, organizations, communities, and individuals.  They guide managerial and social action.  And yet these critical tools and the bureaucracies formed to manage them have not kept up with the economy’s digital transformation.  They’re like a rush-hour gridlock trapping a Formula 1 race car.  In a digital world, the way we regulate and maintain administrative control has to change…”

“With blockchain, we can imagine a world in which contracts are embedded in digital code and stored in transparent, shared databases, where they are protected from deletion, tampering, and revision.  In this world every agreement, every process, every task, and every payment would have a digital record and signature that could be identified, validated, stored, and shared.  Intermediaries like lawyers, brokers, and bankers might no longer be necessary.  Individuals, organizations, machines, and algorithms would freely transact and interact with one another with little friction.”

Towards a Trusted Framework for Identity and Data Sharing

I recently participated in a Treasury Identity Forum organized by the US Treasury Department in Washington, DC.  The Forum focused “on the critical role of legal identity for financial inclusion, economic development, and anti-money laundering/counter financing of terrorism (AML/CFT) safeguards, and the development of new technology identification/authentication solutions to help achieve these goals.”  It brought together stakeholders from governments, financial service companies, FinTech startups and technologists to better understand how emerging technologies and legal frameworks can help us develop the required digital identity systems.

I was a member of a panel on how government, business and research communities can collaborate in developing workable identity solutions.  Let me summarize the points I made in my introductory remarks.

From time immemorial, our identity systems have been based on face-to-face interactions and on physical documents and processes.  But, the transition to a digital economy requires radically different identity systems.  As the economy and society move toward a world where interactions are primarily governed by digital data and transactions, our existing methods of managing identity and data security are proving inadequate.  Large-scale fraud, identity theft and data breaches are becoming common, and a large fraction of the world’s population lacks the credentials needed to be part of the digital economy.

Blockchains: the Promise of More Frictionless, Trusted Economies

Why do firms exist?  Ronald Coase, - the eminent British economist and University of Chicago professor, - addressed this question in The Nature of the Firm, - a seminal paper published in 1937 which along with other major achievements earned him the 1991 Nobel Prize in economics.

Professor Coase explained that, in principle, a firm should be able to find the cheapest, most productive, highest quality goods and services by contracting them out in an efficient, open marketplace.  However, markets are not perfectly fluid.  Transaction costs are a kind of friction incurred in obtaining goods and services outside the firm, such as searching for the right supply chain partners, establishing a trusted relationship, negotiating a contract, coordinating the work, managing intellectual property and so on.  Firms came into being to make it easier and less costly to get work done.

A recent IBM report, - Fast forward: Rethinking enterprises, ecosystems and economies with blockchains, - harks back to Coase’s paper to analyze the potential value of blockchains.  The report notes that while transaction costs are lower within firms, “in recent years as enterprises have scaled, the added complexity of operations has grown exponentially while revenue growth has remained linear.  The result?  At a certain point, organizations are faced with diminishing returns.  Blockchains have the potential to eradicate the cost of complexity and ultimately redefine the traditional boundaries of an organization.”

Blockchain Can Reshape Financial Services… But it Will Take Significant Time and Investment

In early August, the World Economic Forum (WEF) published two excellent reports: A Blueprint for Digital Identity, - which I wrote about a few weeks ago, - and The future of financial infrastructure: An ambitious look at how blockchain can reshape financial services, - which I’d now like to discuss.

“Distributed ledger technology (DLT), more commonly called blockchain, has captured the imaginations, and wallets, of the financial services ecosystem,” notes the report, citing a few statistics as evidence: over 90 central banks are engaged in DLT discussions around the world; more than 24 countries have already launched blockchain-based initiatives; 80% of banks predict that they’ll launch blockchain projects by 2017; over 90 financial and technology companies have already joined blockchain consortia; over the past 3 years; more than 2,500 patents have been filed; and $1.4 billion has been invested in blockchain-based startups over the same time span.

In addition, a panel of global experts convened by the WEF selected blockchain as one of the Top Ten Emerging Technologies for 2016 because of its potential to fundamentally change the way markets and governments work, - further evidence that blockchain is reaching a tipping point of market acceptance.

But, significant hurdles must be overcome before the advent of large-scale blockchain infrastructures.  The WEF correctly warns that this will take time.  Not only are there major technology and standards issues to be worked out, but the industry will have to collaborate with governments around the world to develop the appropriate legal frameworks and regulatory environments.

Digital Identity - the Key to Privacy and Security in the Digital World

From time immemorial, our identity systems have been based on face-to-face interactions and on physical documents and processes.  But, the transition to a digital economy requires radically different identity systems.  In a world that’s increasingly governed by digital transactions and data, our existing methods for managing security and privacy are no longer adequate.  Data breaches, identity theft and large-scale fraud are becoming more common.  In addition, a significant portion of the world’s population lacks the necessary digital credentials to fully participate in the digital economy.

Last month, the World Economic Forum (WEF) published an excellent report, A Blueprint for Digital Identity.  The report lays out a framework for the creation of digital identity systems, discusses the benefits that these systems would bring to its various stakeholders, and argues that financial institutions should lead their development.  It also includes a primer on identity, which clearly explains what identity is all about.

Identity plays a major role in everyday life.  Think about going to an office, getting on a plane, logging to a website or making an online purchase.  While all around us, we generally don’t pay much attention to our identity credentials unless something goes wrong.  But, it’s a highly complex and interesting subject, which the report helped me better understand.  Let me summarize some of what I learned.

“Why is identity important?,” the primer starts out by asking.  “In an increasingly borderless and digital world, privacy and security cannot be ensured through the construction of walls around sensitive information.  Identity is the new frontier of privacy and security, where the very nature of entities is what allows them to complete some transactions but be denied from completing others.  To understand the importance of identity and the criticality of strong identity protocols that protect against cyber-risk and suit the needs of transacting parties, it is essential to understand what identity is, and its role in enabling transactions.”

Blockchain - Once Again, the Technological Genie Has Been Unleashed from its Bottle

Skeptics needing further reassurance that the Blockchain is truly reaching a tipping point can rest easier with the recent publication of Don Tapscott’s Blockchain Revolution, co-written with his son Alex.  Don, whom I’ve long known, has a knack for identifying what The Next Big Thing will likely be, and shortly thereafter writing a book to explain it to everybody else.  The Digital Economy, written in the mid 1990s, anticipated the unbundling of vertically integrated companies into business webs, giving rise to the open networked enterprise.  His 2006 Wikinomics predicted the rise of mass collaboration in what became known a few years later as the On Demand Economy.  Blockchain Revolution, his 16th book, now explains “How The Blockchain Will Transform Everything From Banking To Government To Our Identities.”

The book is organized into three main sections.  The first explains the blockchain from two complementary points of view: as a major next step in the evolution of the Internet; and as the architecture underpinning bitcoin, the best known and most widely held digital currency.  The second and longest section describes how blockchain could potentially transform financial services, companies, government, the Internet of Things, and other key areas.  The last section summarizes the major challenges that must be overcome as well as the governance required to fulfill the promise of blockchain.

“It appears that once again, the technological genie has been unleashed from its bottle,” write the authors in their opening paragraph.  “Summoned by an unknown person or persons with unclear motives, at an uncertain time in history, the genie is now at our service for another kick of the can - to transform the economic power grid and the old order of human affairs for the better.  If we will it.”

The Top Ten Emerging Technologies of 2016

For the past several years, the World Economic Forum (WEF) has published an annual list of the Top Ten Emerging Technologies that would likely have the greatest impact on the world in the years to come.  A few weeks ago, the WEF published its 2016 Top Ten list.  The list is compiled by the WEF Meta-Council on Emerging Technologies, a panel of global experts led by Dr. Bernard Meyerson, - IBM Fellow and Chief Innovation Officer.

“Horizon scanning for emerging technologies is crucial to staying abreast of developments that can radically transform our world, enabling timely expert analysis in preparation for these disruptors,” said Meyerson. “The global community needs to come together and agree on common principles if our society is to reap the benefits and hedge the risks of these technologies.”

The technologies on the list are not new.  They’ve been worked on for many years.  But their selection to the Top Ten List indicates that, in the opinion of the council members, each of these technologies has now reached a maturity and acceptance tipping point where its impact can be meaningfully felt.

Is the Blockchain Now Reaching a Tipping Point?

A few weeks ago, the World Economic Forum (WEF) published its annual list of the Top Ten Emerging Technologies for 2016.  The technologies on the list have been worked on for years.  But their inclusion in the Top Ten List indicates that each has now reached a market acceptance tipping point where its impact can be meaningfully felt.  The Blockchain is one of the technologies in this  year’s list, selected by the WEF panel of global experts because of its emerging potential to fundamentally change the way markets and governments work. 

What does it mean for an infrastructure technology like the blockchain to have reached such a tipping point?  The WEF report compared the blockchain to the Internet, noting that “Like the Internet, the blockchain is an open, global infrastructure upon which other technologies and applications can be built.  And like the Internet, it allows people to bypass traditional intermediaries in their dealings with each other, thereby lowering or even eliminating transaction costs.”

I agree with this comparison and find it useful to help us understand how blockchains might evolve over the years. So, I’d like to compare the state of the blockchain in 2016 to the state of the Internet 25 years ago or so.

FinTech and Financial Inclusion

In early June I spent a few days in Mexico City.  The main purpose of the trip was to participate and give a keynote at the 2016 Cumbre de Directores (Director’s Summit), a conference sponsored by Endeavor Mexico in collaboration with the IPADE Business School.  Endeavor is a global not-for-profit organization dedicated to long-term economic growth by supporting high-impact entrepreneurship in over 25 cities around the world, including Mexico.  The Director’s Summit is Endeavor Mexico’s major annual meeting, bringing together over 400 entrepreneurs and senior executives.

My talk was focused on the changing nature of innovation in the digital economy.  A major part of the talk included a discussion of innovations in the digital payments and financial services ecosystem.  My keynote was followed by two separate FinTech panels, where different entrepreneurs discussed the importance of FinTech in Mexico as well as their individual companies’ efforts in the area.  That same evening I attended and spoke at a reception sponsored by Angel Ventures Mexico, an early stage VC firm where I also heard quite a bit about FinTech startups.  My overall impression is that there’s considerable FinTech activity in Mexico, a large portion of which is aimed at financial inclusion.

Every year, the World Bank publishes the Global Findex database, a measure of financial inclusion around the world, including how individuals save, borrow, make payments and manage risks in over 140 countries.  According to their latest report, - Global Findex 2014, - 62 percent of adults worldwide have an account at a bank, at another type of financial institution, or with a mobile money provider, - up from 51 percent in 2011.  The 2014 report also noted that 2 billion adults remain without an account around the world, a 20 percent decrease from the 2.5 billion unbanked adults in 2011. Technology advances, particularly the rapid growth in mobile devices and digital financial services, are the major reasons for these dramatic improvements.

The Global Findex database includes data for each individual country.  Their 2014 data for Mexico showed that about 39 percent of adults had accounts with financial institutions, - a significant improvement over the 27.4 percent of adults with accounts in 2011.  But, Mexico still lags many of its peers in Latin America.  Over half of all adults have financial accounts in Latin America as a whole, significantly above Mexico’s figure.

The President’s Commission on Enhancing National Cybersecurity

Last February, President Obama issued an Executive Order establishing the Commission on Enhancing National Cybersecurity within the Department of Commerce.  The Commission is charged with “recommending bold, actionable steps that the government, private sector, and the nation as a whole can take to bolster cybersecurity in today’s digital world, and reporting back by the beginning of December.”

The Commission is composed of twelve individuals from the world of business, technology and academia. Former national security advisor Tom Donilon and former IBM CEO Sam Palmisano serve as chair and vice-chair respectively.

To gather the necessary information for its short- and long-term recommendations, the Commission is holding public meetings around the country, each focused on a different sector of the economy.  On May 16, it met in New York City to discuss the challenges and opportunities facing the financial sector.  The meeting included three panels, one on finance, one on insurance, and the third on research and development.

I was a member of the R&D panel, along with MIT professor Sandy Pentland, IBM Fellow Jerry Cuomo, and Greg Baxter, head of digital strategy at Citigroup.  During our 90 minute panel, we each made introductory remarks based on our previously submitted briefing statements and then answered the commissioners’ questions.

Could Blockchain Prove to Be “The Next Big Thing”?

Over the past several decades, information technologies (IT) have been fundamentally transforming companies, industries and the economy in general.  In its early years, - ’60s, ’70s, ’80s - companies deployed IT primarily to automate their existing processes, - leaving the underlying structure of the business in place.  It wasn’t until the 1990s, - with the pioneering work of Michael Hammer and others on business process reengineering, - that companies realized that just automating existing processes wasn’t enough.  Rather, to achieve the promise of IT, it was necessary to fundamentally redesign their operations, examine closely the flow of work across the organization, and eliminate legacy processes that no longer added value to the business.

Organizational transformation was then taken beyond the boundaries of the company with the explosive growth of the Internet.  The Internet made it significantly easier to obtain goods and services outside the firm, enabling companies to rely on business partners for many of the functions once done in-house.  To compete effectively in an increasingly interconnected global economy, companies now had to optimize not only the flow of work within their own organizations but across their supply chain ecosystems.  Over the past 20 years, such ecosystem-wide transformations have been disrupting the business models of industry after industry, - from retail and manufacturing to media and entertainment.

The banking industry has long been one of the major users of IT, - among the first to automate its back-end and front-office processes and to later embrace the Internet and smartphones.  However, banking has been relatively less disrupted by digital transformations than other industries.  In particular, change has come rather slowly to the world’s banking infrastructure.

Is FinTech Forcing Banking to a Tipping Point?

For the past few decades, digital technologies have been systematically transforming one industry after another.  The transformations have generally proceeded along three different stages.  First comes the use of IT to improve the productivity and quality of production-oriented, back-end processes.  Distribution comes next, leveraging the universal reach and connectivity of the Internet over the past 20 years.  The transformation then reaches a tipping point when technology radically changes the user experience, - as has happened with the rise of smartphones over the past decade, - leading to a fundamental disruption of the industry and its business models.

While this digital disruption journey is ultimately inevitable, the pace varies widely across industries.  The IT industry has been the most disrupted, - often by its own digital creations in a kind of sorcerer’s apprentice scenario.  Over my long career, I’ve seen many once powerful IT companies done in by technology and market changes, and either disappear altogether or become shadows of their former selves.

Beyond IT, few industries have felt the impact of digital forces like media.  Everything seems to be changing at once, from the way content is produced and delivered, to the sources of revenue and profits.  In less than two decades, the global recorded music industry has lost over half its revenues, while the drop in newspaper advertising revenue in the US has been even steeper.  Retail has also been undergoing major changes with the rise of e-commerce, as has telecommunications with the transition to mobile phones and wireless data.

How about the banking industry, which has long been a major user of information technologies, - including back- and front-office automation, ATM’s, Internet banking, data-driven risk management, fraud detection, and mobile financial apps?

The Blockchain and Open Innovation

Transformational innovations don’t always play out as originally envisioned.  Once in the marketplace, they seem to acquire a life of their own.  Lest we forget, the Internet started out as a DARPA sponsored project aimed at developing a robust, fault-tolerant computer network.  ARPANET was launched in 1969, and by the mid-1980s, it had grown and evolved into NSFNET, a network widely used in the academic and research communities.  And, the World Wide Web was first developed by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN in the late 1980s to facilitate the sharing of information among researchers around the world.  They’ve both gone on to change the world, - to say the least.

The blockchain first came to light around 2008 as the architecture underpinning bitcoin, the best known and most widely held digital currency.  But, as with the Internet, the Web and other major technologies, the blockchain has now transcended its original objective.  It has the potential to revolutionize the finance industry and transform many aspects of the digital economy. 

Two press announcements released in mid-December are serious milestones in its evolution.  Let me explain.

Why Blockchains Could Transform How the Economy Works

The October 31 issue of The Economist featured the blockchain in its cover: “The Trust Machine: How the technology behind Bitcoin could change the world.”  Its two articles on the subject explain what blockchains are about, as well as why we should care about an exotic technology that involves concepts from cryptography, game theory and distributed computing. 

Right up front, the Economist distinguishes between three different notions that are often muddled up when discussing blockchains: 

• Bitcoin, the best known and most widely held digital currency, whose users can transact directly with each other with no need for a central authority, - be it a bank or government agency, - to certify the validity of the transactions.
  

• The blockchain architecture underpinning bitcoin, whose protocols were specifically designed to control the creation and transfer of bitcoins. 

• The general concept of blockchain, a distributed database architecture with the ability to handle trust-less transactions where no parties need to know nor trust each other for transactions to complete. 

Bitcoin has had a mixed reputation, due to its wild fluctuations in value and past links to illicit activities.  And, bitcoin-specific blockchain concepts like mining might well be perceived as too wasteful of computing power and energy by all but the most libertarian of bitcoin supporters.  But the advanced technologies and architectures underlying blockchains are being increasingly accepted as having important implications far beyond bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies.

The blockchain holds the promise to revolutionize the finance industry by bringing one of its most important and oldest concepts, the ledger, to the Internet age.  Beyond finance, the blockchain “offers a way for people who do not know or trust each other to create a record of who owns what that will compel the assent of everyone concerned.  It is a way of making and preserving truths.”

Reflections on Bitcoin

Ever since I joined Citigroup as a strategic advisor in March of 2008, I’ve been spending a lot of time thinking about the ongoing transition toward a global digital money ecosystem.  For over 2,500 years, money has played a central role in the rise of civilizations and in human affairs of all kinds.  As a result, the historical transition to digital money is among the most exciting and important societal challenges in the coming decades.  Its impact might well be up there with that of other major technology-based societal transformations, including electricity, radio and TV, and the Internet and World Wide Web.

The evolution to a digital money ecosystem involves a lot more than the transformation of money - cash, checks, credit and debit cards, etc, - from physical to digital objects that we will carry in our smart mobile devices.  It encompasses the whole money ecosystem, including the global payment infrastructures, the management of personal identities and financial data, the global financial flows among institutions and between institutions and individuals, the government regulatory regimes, security and privacy issues, and so on.

Just about every aspect of the world’s economy is involved.  Over time, mobile devices will truly become our personal windows into an increasingly global, digital economy.  And, because continuing technology advances are now enabling us to bring the empowerment benefits of the digital revolution to just about everyone in the planet, digital money is a truly inclusive innovation with no apparent digital divide.  Mobile phones and Internet access have gone from a luxury to a necessity that most everyone in the planet will soon be able to afford. 

This evolution will take decades to fully play out, - historical transitions take their time.  But, it’s most definitely underway, with an increasing number of market pilots and research studies taking place around the world.